Rhetorical Reading Strategies And The Construction Of Meaning

In Christina Haas and Linda Flower’s article â€Å"Rhetorical Reading Strategies and the Construction of Meaning†, they present three different strategies readers use when reading a paper or an article, and the importance of each. An experiment was constructed to show those strategies in action, and what each type of reader does while using the strategies. Beginner readers used content strategies, where they tried to grasp the basics of the article, or were â€Å"concerned with content or topic information† (Hass and Flower 175). This strategy was the easiest and least in-depth. The next strategy was function/feature, here readers dug a little deeper and tried to interpret the text more, or â€Å"frequently named text parts, pointing to specific words,†¦show more content†¦Lakoff and Johnson state, â€Å"[w]e have found, on the contrary, that metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action† (3). They are saying that metaphors are used all the time and not just when people talk, but when they think and in what they do. This is exactly true because after learning about metaphors, and getting a better understanding of them, I have realized how much I, and others, apply them to everyday life without even realizing it, or trying to. Using a metaphor to describe Haas and Flowerâ €™s reading concepts will therefore make for a better grasp of what the concepts mean. Lakoff and Johnson’s analytical tools consist of linguistic evidence and highlighting and hiding. When using linguistic evidence, the writer is providing the reader with words associated with their metaphor that is used in both parts. For example, Lakoff and Johnson use the metaphor â€Å"argument is war† (4), and they give the readers linguistic evidence like â€Å"I demolished his argument† (4) and â€Å"I’ve never won an argument with him† (4) to present the readers with evidence on why this metaphor works. When a writer uses the highlighting tool, they are pointing out the obvious areas that thought of with the metaphors. When a writer uses hiding, they are doing the exact opposite. Here they point out the areas that are not thought of with the presented metaphor. The first way a reader reads, and the most basic way, isShow MoreRelatedRhetorical Reading S trategies And The Construction Of Meaning By Christina Haas And Linda Flower Summary1798 Words   |  8 PagesReading Deeper than the Words In Christina Haas and Linda Flower’s article â€Å"Rhetorical Reading Strategies and the Construction of Meaning†, they point out, and break down, the three reading strategies that are used by students when reading a passage, or paper. An experiment was constructed to show what each of these strategies are like while being used and what the reader may ask, or get out of, a certain excerpt. Even though Haas and Flower do not mention George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, or evenRead MoreUse Of Monosyllabic Language On Everyday Life1477 Words   |  6 Pagesexact opposite of abstract terms, or terms that are not available to our senses. Because concrete terms can be seen, touched, smelled, tasted, or heard, the meanings are concise and not open to human interpretation. You don’t want to hide your points, so it is better to use more concrete terms than abstract terms in your writing. This rhetorical device makes it much easier to visualize the story because concrete terms are things we possibly encounter in everyday life. Monosyllabic: Monosyllabic languageRead MoreE La America Needs Its Nerds T MC4826 Words   |  27 PagesQuestion 2, Form B) Teacher Overview Skill Focus Remember Understand Apply Analyze Close Reading Grammar Reading Strategies Annotation Determining Author’s Purpose Determining Fact and Opinion Determining Main Idea Generalization Inference Paraphrase Prediction Seminar/Discussion Summary Literary Elements Analogy Detail Diction connotation denotation vocabulary Imagery Point of View Rhetorical Shift Tone tone determined through diction, imagery, detail, point of view, figurative languageRead MoreNatural Writing As A Construct982 Words   |  4 PagesNatural; Reading and Writing Are Not†, it says, â€Å"A related fact should be self-evident: Reading and writing are acquired skills for which the human brain is not yet fully evolved (liberman, Shankweiler, Liberman, 1989). Human brains are naturally wired to speak; they are not naturally wired to read and write† (Moats Tolmoan, 1). The article states that the brain is capable of learning how to read and write but spoken language is hard-wired inside the human brain. Writing along with reading and skillsRead MoreThe Difference Between Originality And Plagiarism918 Words   |  4 Pagesacknowledging that borrowing, the writer is plagiarizing†(Wardle Downs 395). Throughout Porter’s text, he explores intertextuality, the principle that all writing and speech—indeed, all signs—arise from a single network: what Vygotsky called â€Å"the web of meaning†(Porter 396). He states that it is not possible to create a text that does not contain previous sources. Therefore he does not believe that you can be original. A text written by Nancy Sommers, I Stand Here Writing, describes her intention of teachingRead MoreThe Analytical Strategy And Its Appraisal846 Words   |  4 Pages5. The analytical strategy and its appraisal Analytical strategy includes organising, managing and analysing the data collected throughout the research. In this article, the researchers have used narrative and rhetorical analysis for the transcripts. All of the interviewees are describing their work and personal life as stories throughout the interview. Some of the interviewees, Richard and Phil have used headline solution and repetition to create identifies of middle managers (Thomas and LinsteadRead MoreMax s Father Has Full Time Employment933 Words   |  4 Pageswith Alabama Power about interest in employment. He has no plans to attend secondary education after graduation. He stated that he would need his (CDL) Commercial Drivers License to work for Alabama Power. He also said that they prefer some construction and heavy equipment experience. Max is working at Chic-fil-a in Roebuck, Alabama. He has been employed there for a short amount of time, 3-4 months. He enjoys his work position and likes that they are closed on Sundays. I asked him if he getsRead MoreWhy Are University Writing Courses Required For College Students?2789 Words   |  12 Pageswith each of the classes that they take. While these classes all require different skills to be successful in them, they also share some of the same required skills as well. One of the most important skills to have as a student is to have strong reading and writing skills. While students may use mathematics, problem solving, and reasoning skills, the most important skill they will use is writing. Students often question why they need to take a university writing course. Statements such as, â€Å"WhyRead More The Relationship of Photographs, History, and Memory Essay5378 Words   |  22 Pagesthought and imagination in the production of society--as reflected in the earlier work of Louis Althusser (1970), Maurice Godelier (1984) and perhaps more significantly, Cornelis Castoriadis (1975), suggests yet another role for photography in the construction of a social and cultural reality. Photographs in capitalist societies contribute to the production of information and participate in the surveillance of the environment where their subjective and objective qualities are applied to the private usesRead MoreStudy Guide Literary Terms7657 Words   |  31 Pages AP Literary and Rhetorical Terms 1. 2. alliteration- Used for poetic effect, a repetition of the initial sounds of several words in a group. The following line from Robert Frosts poem Acquainted with the Night provides us with an example of alliteration,: I have stood still and stopped the sound of feet. The repetition of the s sound creates a sense of quiet, reinforcing the meaning of the line 3. allegory – Where every aspect of a story is representative, usually symbolic

Lethal Encounters Englishmen And Indians During Colonial...

â€Å"My people are few. They resemble the scattering trees of a storm-swept plain...There was a time when our people covered the land as the waves of a wind-ruffled sea cover its shell-paved floor, but that time long since passed away with the greatness of tribes that are now but a mournful memory.† (Chief Seattle, Chief Seattle’s Speech). Lethal Encounters Englishmen and Indians in Colonial Virginia by Alfred Cave is a book that extensively describe Britain’s and Spain’s initial colonization of America. The book mainly focuses on the facts and primary entries of Native Americans and pioneers, and their initial thoughts thoughts about each other. Albert Caves book, Lethal Encounters Englishmen and Indians in Colonial Virginia, discussed many issues between those indigenous to America and the pioneers, including; racism, imperialism, culture clash, religion, and war. When the English settlers began their colonization of America, they were unsure on how to approach the indigenous people. They were not prepared for a war initially, nor did they have all of the supplies required to survive. In chapter one of, Lethal Encounters Englishmen and Indians in Colonial Virginia, Albert Cave describes Sir Walter Raleigh’s decisions about the Roanoke colonial and Indian policies. Raleigh instructed the settlers to treat the Natives with ‘kindness and generosity’ (Cave, Lethal Encounters Englishmen and Indians in Colonial Virginia, pg 11). The English settlers recognized the

Walmart and Target a Closer Look at Strategic Interaction Free Essays

Main Paper Walmart and Target: A closer look at strategic interaction Maastricht University School of Business and Economics Maastricht, 4th December 2011 Bastian Hauk, BH ID number: i6034999 Study: International Business Course Code: EBC1009 Economics Business Group Number: 31 Economics Tutor: Khan Writing Tutor: Hetty Bennink Writing Assignment: Main Paper Table of Contents Page 1. Introduction 2. Economic Principle: Game Theory 3. We will write a custom essay sample on Walmart and Target a Closer Look at Strategic Interaction or any similar topic only for you Order Now Applied Economic Principles 3. 1. Theory of Game for simultaneously Decision Making 3. 2. The extended Version for consecutive Decision Making 4. Conclusion References 4 6 7 8 2 2 1 Introduction In the United States of America there are only two very well-known discount retailers: Target and Walmart. Both are currently operating all over the country which places each of them among the biggest corporations in the United States. Nearly every American has been to at least one of them because they sell almost everything and E. Basker described this service â€Å"one-stop shopping† (2007). In 2007, Walmart operated more than 3,400 stores across the USA and a survey showed that by the end of 2005 46 percent of Americans lived within 5 miles of the nearest store; within 15 miles even 88 percent (Basker, 2007). Target operated 1,750 stores in January 2011 (Target Corp. , 2011). Since their wide range of products is quite similar they are large competitors. Thus, they are constantly waging price war against each other. In addition, they make use of strategic interaction and especially of game theory which is a mathematical model describing a decisionmaking process and showing how the players make different decisions that potentially affect each other’s interests (von Stenge, Turocy, 2001). This paper analyses strategic interaction between Walmart and Target with respect to the game theory and the extended version. In order to do so it introduces first the theoretic background of strategic interaction. Afterwards it applies game theory and the extended version to this case in order to show the impact of strategic interaction on both discount retailers. It concludes by stating the importance of strategic interaction to optimal decision making and its relevance for Walmart and Target. 2 Economic principles: game theory and extended version The theory of games describes certain concepts in which several players influence each other’s decisions in situations of conflict and competition (Moffatt, 2011). In order to apply game theory there must be at least two players. The three basic elements of a game are the player, the strategies he can choose from and the payoffs the players receive from each combination of strategy. The payoff matrix describes the outcomes in a certain game for each possible combination of strategies as shown in Figure 2. 1. 2 Player One Strategy 1 Strategy 1 Outcome Player 1 Strategy 2 Outcome Player 1 Outcome Player Two Strategy 2 Player 2 Outcome Player 1 Outcome Player 2 Outcome Player 1 Outcome Player 2 Figure 2. 1: Payoff matrix for a two player game Outcome Player 2 If one player used a dominant strategy, his choice yields a higher payoff, regardless what the other player does and as a result he has no incentive to change his strategy. For this example, player one’s dominant strategy would be strategy one if he received a higher outcome no matter which strategy player two chooses, but only if he then receives the highest payout. There are also some particular outcomes; for example the Nash equilibrium which occurs when any combination of strategies is the best strategy with the best possible outcome for all players (McDowell, Thom, Frank, Bernanke, 009). An outcome created by two dominant strategies which is worse than the outcome created by two dominated strategies is called prisoner’s dilemma. The prisoner’s dilemma only occurs when each player’s dominant strategy results in a smaller payoff than it would have if they had chosen the dominated strategy. Game theory also assumes that the decisions are made simultaneo usly. To illustrate a game in which the players decide interdependent, the economist uses the extended version of game theory which is displayed with a game tree (McDowell, Thom, Frank, Bernanke, 2009). Company 1 Decision: Action A or Action B Action A Company 2 Decision: Action C or Action D Action C Outcome 1 Outcome 2 Action D Action B Company 2 Decision: Action C or Action D Action C Outcome 3 Outcome 4 Action D Figure 2. 2: Decision tree Figure 2. 2 is an example of a game tree. Company 1 first decides which action they will take, which can be either A or B. Company 2 then has the choice how they want to react and whether they take action C or D. The best outcome can only be achieved with a backward nduction as a result of evaluating the results first and afterwards predicting the other player’s strategy. For example, outcome 3 would be the best outcome for company 2 if company 1 chose action B and therefore company 2 chooses action C. Outcome 2 would gain the highest p rofit for company 2 if company 1 took action A. 3 Applied Economic Principles 3. 1 Theory of game for simultaneously decision making As stated in the introduction this two very large American retailers are competitors and have a very similar customer base. The income of Targets customer base is slightly higher but it is not relevant for strategic interaction (Neuman, 2011). Theory of game helps to understand the different prices and how the different price strategies affect consumer behavior. This example is not based on any specific data. However, it is logic for somebody willing to buy a certain good to substitute the same good with an identical one if the price is lower and there are not any additional efforts to make. By applying game theory, the three basic elements have to be clear. 4 Walmart and Target are the players. Different pricing of a certain product -a television- are the strategies while the different profits are the results of each combination of the strategies. Both companies have two pricing strategies: either to charge a low price of â‚ ¬300 or a high price of â‚ ¬500. They have to make the decision simultaneously, for instance before they release the television to the market. It is important to know that the customers are also willing to purchase the television for the high price. Target High Price (â‚ ¬500) High Price (â‚ ¬500) Walmart Walmart earns â‚ ¬10,000 profit Low Price (â‚ ¬300) Walmart earns â‚ ¬15,000 profit Figure 3. : Payoff matrix for Walmart and Target Figure 3. 1 shows a potential payoff matrix for this strategic interaction. It shows all possible outcomes for the two pricing strategies. Walmart and Target would both make â‚ ¬10,000 profit if they charged the high price and â‚ ¬7,500 profit if they charged the low price. If Walmart chose the low pricing strategy and Target used the high pricing strategy Walmart would gain â‚ ¬15,000 compared to the â‚ ¬5,000 profit Target would make. Target also makes â‚ ¬15,000 profit using the low price if Walmart decides to charge the high price. What does that mean for both companies? Since both of them would earn a higher profit by setting the price low in this scenario, both companies would choose â€Å"Low Price† as a dominant strategy. On the contrary, â€Å"High Price† would be the dominated strategy. Nash equilibrium can be found when both companies pick the â€Å"low price† strategy because they don’t have an incentive to change their strategy. This payoff 5 Low (â‚ ¬300) Target earns â‚ ¬15,000 profit Walmart earns â‚ ¬5,000 profit Target earns â‚ ¬7,500 profit Walmart earns â‚ ¬7,500 profit Target earns â‚ ¬10,000 profit Target earns â‚ ¬5,000 profit matrix also shows that the strategy combination of â€Å"high price† and â€Å"high price† would be the best possible outcome for both firms. But rather than applying the dominated strategy Walmart and Target use the dominant strategy. This dilemma is called prisoner’s dilemma. Those dilemmas exist quite often and there are many reasons why they exist, for instance, both companies do not want the other one to make a higher profit or even to have the chance to receive a higher profit. 3. 2. The extended version for consecutive decision making Therefore Target and Walmart react and might change the strategy they had choosen. Both competitors often change their strategies. Although Singh (2006) stated that prices at Walmart are about 15 percent lower than in traditional supermarkets, Neuman (2011) proved by comparing almost 60 items that Target’s prices were a bit lower than Walmart’s. It is hard to rely on data which are released with a 5 year time difference but it shows that both firms constantly adjust the prices to be competitive. High Price Target High Price Walmart Low Price â‚ ¬10,000 for Target â‚ ¬10,000 for Walmart â‚ ¬15,000 for Target â‚ ¬5,000 for Walmart â‚ ¬5,000 for Target â‚ ¬15,000 for Walmart â‚ ¬7,500 for Target â‚ ¬7,500 for Walmart High Price Low Price Target Low Price Figure 3. 2: Decision Tree for Walmart and Target 6 Since the decisions of both companies are not made simultaneously the reacting firm -in this case Target- has to find out what action to take in order to receive the highest profit for either move Walmart makes. Walmart moves first and selects either strategy. Target is in the position to decide and how it wants to react. Thus, Target uses backward induction. First it evaluates the best results for each action Walmart uses; â‚ ¬15,000 profit if Walmart sets a high price and â‚ ¬7,500 profit if Walmart sets a low price. Afterwards it chooses the strategy how to get to that profit. Finally Walmart moves and selects the low or the high price strategy and Target is able to react sufficiently. Assume that Walmart chooses the high price strategy then Target sets low prices and due to that Target earns the highest possible profit. Conclusion Walmart and Target are large competitors on the American retailer market and therefore strategic interaction is very important for them. Both companies know the ways to decide how to act concerning different strategies. Both companies know that it is necessary for them to react and choose the best strategy. In the first example both companies simultaneously introduce a television to the market. Their do minant strategy is to set a low price because both of them hope that the other company chooses the high price strategy. This is one example of a free market wherein the customers always choose the low price if available. Walmart and Target would earn a larger profit if both set the high price. In the other case Walmart moves first and afterwards Target chooses the strategy which leads to the highest outcome. The reacting company’s best strategy in the extended version of game theory is always the low price strategy. On the contrary, when two companies have to decide simultaneously it is not always the best choice to choose the low price strategy although it is their dominant strategy. References Basker, E. (2007). The Causes and Consequences of Wal-Mart’s Growth. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 21 (3), 177-198. McDowell, M. , Thom, R. , Frank, R. , Bernanke, B. (2009). Principles of Economics, 2nd European Edition. Maidenhead, UK: McGraw-Hill Education. Moffatt, M. (2008). What are Game Theory and Bargaining Theory? Retrieved December 4, 2011, from http://economics. about. com/cs/ studentresources/f/game_theory. htm Neuman, S. (2011). Target Takes Aim At Walmart, With Some Success, NPR. Retrieved December 4, 2011, from http://www. pr. org/2011/08/19/139793948/target-takes-aim-at-walmartwith-some-success Singh, V. , Hansen, K. , Blattberg, R. (2006). A Market Entry and Consumer Behavior: An investigation of a Wal-Mart Supercenter. Marketing Science, 25 (5), 457-476 Target Corp. (2011). Target Annual Report 2010. Minnesota, US: Target. Retrieved December 7, 2011 from http://www. sec. gov/Archives/edgar/data/27419/000104746911002032/a2201861z10k. htm#bg11101a_main_toc Turocy, T. L, von Stenge, B (2001). Game Theory. Academic Press Limited, 2 (2), 69-73. 10. 1080/07430170152379371 doi: 8 How to cite Walmart and Target a Closer Look at Strategic Interaction, Essay examples

Buzzwords and Labels free essay sample

In Merriam Webster Collegiate Dictionary poverty is defined as the state of one who lacks a usual or socially acceptable amount of money or material possessions. We all have heard the terms used to describe the underclass, but are these buzzword or labels harmful to our society? In the reading Deconstructing the Underclass written by Herbert Gang, discusses the effects of buzzwords or labels. I believe that although buzzwords and labels may seem harmless, they are very Judgmental and undeserving.When asked, what types of people is included in the underclass? People automatically think, black, Hispanic, or even singe mother. This is a direct Judgment on race or character. These labels are dangerous because they can be used to persuade others. I think that when you label, that it is very possible to turn Into self- fulfilling prophecies. How would you feel, if you thought society would much rather throw you away? Planners have tried to implement programs to help the underclass with their robbers, mostly being economic. We will write a custom essay sample on Buzzwords and Labels or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page But there are a lot of factors Involved; no one program has been effective in decreasing poverty. Although, I do think that planners have to be careful, they tend to define neighborhoods as being predominately underclass. Therefore posing another problem of social Isolation. In which, people are making a better way of life, move out of this labeled area, and the area becomes more and more isolated with the underclass. I think that the underclass fit Into two of the five themes. Historically and Geographically/Globally Contextual, In the past underclass have lived on the poor side of town. Therefore making a certain area over periods of time more Isolated. And Power of Relations comes Into play, who has more than whom. The definition of poverty should go beyond money; It should Include the needs of a person In order to survive. Unfortunately, I dont have many Ideals on how to solve the problems of the underclass. But I do feel how we label people does effect our society.